1965 India-Pakistan War

1965 India-Pakistan War, conflict between India and Pakistan from August to September 1965. It was the second war the two countries fought over the disputed region of Kashmir, which became part of India after the partition of British India in 1947. The territory, portions of which have a majority-Muslim population, was also claimed by Pakistan and is administered in part by India, Pakistan, and China, the latter controlling the easternmost area. Although large-scale fighting began in August 1965, skirmishes between Indian and Pakistani troops had taken place from January to June in the salt marshes of the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat state. In August Pakistani troops infiltrated the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (downgraded to a union territory in 2019) to engineer a local uprising against the Indian administration. The Indian military retaliated by launching attacks in sectors along the border with Pakistan. The war saw some of the largest tank battles since World War II, involving more than 1,000 tanks. Both India and Pakistan suffered thousands of casualties, and the conflict had a largely inconclusive outcome as both countries claimed victory.

Prelude to war

Freedom from colonial rule came at a cost to India and Pakistan. The partition of British India in August 1947 triggered the forced displacement of millions and the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives. The situation worsened later that year when tribal militias backed by Pakistan attempted to capture the princely state of Kashmir to prevent its possible merger with India. At the time of India’s independence, more than 500 princely states—semiautonomous regions ruled by local monarchs under the British raj’s suzerainty—were given the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan. In response, Hari Singh, the Hindu ruler of Muslim-majority Kashmir, acceded to India in exchange for military assistance. This led to the first war between the two newly independent countries. Although the rebellion was quashed and fighting ended in 1948 (the United Nations negotiated a ceasefire line in 1949), the Kashmir dispute remained unresolved, and Pakistan took administrative control of a portion of the territory. With frequent skirmishes along the porous border, it was only a matter of time before India and Pakistan descended into war once again.

Fighting begins

The 1965 war was preceded by a Pakistani operation between January and June 1965 to test India’s response to aggression. Following the costly war with China in 1962, the Indian military was strained and undergoing a period of transition. It was during this time that clashes with Pakistani troops erupted in the Rann of Kachchh.

In early August 1965 between 7,000 and 30,000 Pakistani troops crossed the 1949 ceasefire line into Indian-administered Kashmir to incite a local rebellion. The infiltration, called Operation Gibraltar, failed to achieve its objective but escalated the conflict. On September 1 Pakistan’s president, Mohammad Ayub Khan, gave the green light for Operation Grand Slam, a massive military offensive aimed at capturing strategic locations in the Indian part of Kashmir. Although Pakistan made a few territorial gains initially, the offensive was largely thwarted by an Indian counterattack.

The Indian military launched multiple offensives along the border in the northern state of Jammu and Kashmir and the western states of Punjab and Rajasthan, with the objective of overstretching Pakistan’s military and seizing territory, particularly in Lahore and Sialkot. The war was also fought in the air, and there was a brief naval confrontation as well. A ceasefire was formally adopted on September 22 after India and Pakistan accepted the United Nations Security Council’s Resolution 211, which demanded an immediate ceasefire and the withdrawal of all troops to positions they had held on August 5, 1965.

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Key battles

• Battle of Haji Pir Pass: On August 26 the Indian military mounted an offensive to capture the strategic Haji Pir Pass, a major infiltration route into India, in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Indian troops captured the pass after days of brutal fighting.
• Battle of Asal Uttar: Armed with superior American Patton tanks, the Pakistani military launched a major attack on September 8 to seize Amritsar, Punjab. The ensuing fight resulted in one of the largest tank battles since the Battle of Kursk in World War II. Indian forces repelled the attack.
• Battle of Chawinda: Another major tank battle occurred in the city of Chawinda in Sialkot, Pakistan, on September 17. Pakistani armored units halted the advance of a formidable Indian force.
• Battle in the skies: Although the war was largely fought on land, air raids were common. The Pakistan Air Force carried out several night bombing raids in India. The Indian Air Force also launched multiple air strikes on targets in Pakistan, including the Sargodha airbase.

Peace treaty

Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, at Tashkent in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (now Uzbekistan). The accord formally ended the 1965 war. Shastri and Ayub agreed to return to the status quo and pursue friendly relations.

Outcome

The 1965 war was largely inconclusive. However, India fared better militarily, while Pakistan failed to achieve most of its objectives, including the annexation of Kashmir from India. Pakistan succeeded in bringing international attention to the Kashmir dispute. Both countries suffered thousands of casualties, including civilians, and India made some territorial gains during its counteroffensive. The United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) noted in 1965 that the conflict is “by no means over” and that “further disputes are inevitable.” The Kashmir dispute remains unresolved. In the 1980s and 1990s the region witnessed destabilizing insurgency. India and Pakistan fought another war in 1999 in Kargil, Kashmir. The region continues to be a flashpoint for conflict.